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FeedbackHuman papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common sexually transmitted viral infection and is the etiologic agent for most cases of cervical cancer. High-risk HPV genotypes are also associated with an increased risk of developing vulvar, vaginal, anal, penile, and oropharyngeal cancer. Most cases of HPV clear within 1-2 years. The American Cancer Society (ACS), American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology (ASCCP), and the American Society for Clinical Pathology (ASCP) jointly recommend an age-based approach to cervical cancer screening. Testing options vary depending on the woman’s age, but include cytology, cotesting, and primary high-risk HPV (hrHPV) testing. There is no routinely recommended screening test for other HPV-related cancers.
Quick Answers for Clinicians
Cytologic abnormalities are common in women younger than 21 years, yet clinically important cervical lesions are rare. To minimize the need for subsequent follow-up by colposcopy and biopsy, initial screening should begin at 21 years. In the United States, guideline-issuing organizations recommend discontinuing screening after 65 years of age for women who are up to date on testing and have normal results.
Annual screening for cervical cancer is not recommended for most women. Frequent screening leads to higher rates of false-positive results with little effect on subsequent development of cervical cancer because of the length of time between cervical precancerous lesions and invasion; rather, recommended screening intervals for women are based on age and clinical history, as set forth by the joint American Cancer Society/American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology/American Society for Clinical Pathology (ACS/ASCCP/ASCP) guideline. ,
In January 2015, the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) and the American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology (ASCCP), motivated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration’s approval of the Roche cobas human papillomavirus (HPV) test as a primary test for cervical cancer screening, issued interim clinical guidance suggesting that primary HPV testing can be considered as an alternative to current cytology-based cancer screening methods in women 25 years and older. The drafting of the interim guidance was informed by 11 other expert representatives from organizations that included the ASCCP and American Cancer Society (ACS), and the guidance was endorsed by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) and the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF).
Indications for Testing
Women 21-65 years of age should be routinely screened for cervical cancer. Recommended screening intervals and testing methods are based on age group. There is no recommendation for routine HPV screening in males. All oropharyngeal squamous cell cancers should be tested for high-risk oncogenic HPV.
Laboratory Testing
HPV Testing in Women – Cervical Cancer Screening
Screening with cervical cytology and/or testing for multiple oncogenic HPV types can lead to the detection of high-grade precancerous cervical lesions and cervical cancer. High-risk HPV genotypes are necessary for the development of cervical cancer. HPV types 16 and 18 are the most carcinogenic genotypes, accounting for 55-60% and 10-15% of all cervical cancers, respectively. Low-risk HPV types are unrelated to cervical cancer and have no clinical role in cervical cancer screening or the evaluation of women with abnormal cytology.
Conventional or liquid-based cytology, with or without reflex to hrHPV testing, is the recommended screening method in women 21-29 years of age and should be performed every 3 years. Cotesting is defined as screening by cytology and HPV testing, and is the preferred screening method in women 30 years and older. This method is more sensitive than cytology alone at detecting cervical abnormalities and has the potential to enable both increased disease detection and increased length of screening intervals. Recent guidance from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) and the ASCCP and endorsed by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) suggests that primary HPV testing can be considered as an alternative screening method to cytology for women starting at 25 years of age.
Screening Guidelines by Population
Women 21-<25 Years of Age
In women 21-<25 years of age, screening by cytology alone every 3 years is recommended. ,
| Testing Method | Results | Follow-Up |
|---|---|---|
| Cytology | Normal cytology | Repeat cytology in 3 yrs |
| ASC-US cytology | Repeat cytology in 1 yr (preferred) OR reflex to HPV testing
|
|
| LSIL cytology | Repeat cytology in 1 yr (preferred) OR reflex to HPV testing
|
|
| ASC-US, atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance; LSIL, low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion | ||
Women 25-<30 Years of Age
Interim guidance from the SGO/ASCCP suggests that primary HPV screening as an alternative to cytology can be considered for women beginning at 25 years of age. This method of screening should be repeated no more often than every 3 years in the event of a normal result. The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) and ACOG endorse the recommendation.
| Testing Method | Results | Follow-Up |
|---|---|---|
| Cytology (with or without reflex) | Normal cytology | Repeat cytology in 3 yrs |
| ASC-US cytology | Repeat cytology in 1 yr OR perform HPV testing (preferred)
|
|
| LSIL cytology | Refer to ASCCP algorithms | |
| Primary hrHPV testing with genotyping
(ONLY for women ≥25 years) |
HPV type 16/18 positive | Colposcopy |
| Positive for any one of the other 12 hrHPV genotypes | Cytology
|
|
| HPV negative | Return to routine screening | |
| NILM, negative for intraepithelial lesion or malignancy | ||
Women 30-65 Years of Age
Most major U.S. guidelines endorse the strategy of cytology plus testing for hrHPV types (known as cotesting) in women 30-65 years as an alternative to cytology alone. , The rationale behind cotesting is that women with normal cytologic test results and no evidence of hrHPV constitute a particularly low-risk group in which screening intervals may be safely lengthened to every 5 years. HPV and cytology cotesting every 5 years is preferred, but cytology without reflex every 3 years is acceptable.
| Testing Method | Results | Follow-Up |
|---|---|---|
| Cotesting | Normal cytology and HPV negative | Repeat screening of choice at 5 yrs (cytology alone every 3 yrs is acceptable) |
| ASC-US cytology and HPV negative | Repeat cotesting at 3 yrs | |
| Normal cytology and HPV positive | OPTION 1: repeat cotesting in 1 yr
OPTION 2: HPV DNA typing
|
|
| ASC-US cytology and HPV positive | Colposcopy | |
| LSIL cytology | Refer to ASCCP algorithms | |
| Primary hrHPV testing with genotyping | HPV type 16/18 positive | Colposcopy |
| Positive for any one of the other 12 hrHPV genotypes | Cytology
|
|
| HPV negative | Return to routine screening | |
| Cytology (with or without reflex)/td> | Normal cytology | Repeat cytology in 3 yrs |
| ASC-US cytology | Repeat cytology in 1 yr OR perform HPV testing (preferred)
|
|
| LSIL cytology | Refer to ASCCP algorithms |
Women >65 Years of Age
Women older than 65 years need not be screened following an adequate and negative screen; if prior screening was inadequate, cotesting (preferred) or cytology (acceptable) should be performed. Adequate screening is considered three consecutive negative cytology results or two consecutive negative cotesting results within the last 10 years; the most recent of either test must be within the past 5 years. Women with a history of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 2 (CIN2) or a more severe diagnosis should continue routine screening for at least 20 years after the CIN2-positive test.
| Testing Method | Results | Follow-Up |
|---|---|---|
| Cotesting (preferred)
(hrHPV and cytology) |
Normal cytology and HPV negative | Screen as per women 30-65 yrs until adequate screening definition fulfilled |
| ASC-US cytology and HPV negative | Recommend additional surveillance with repeat screening in 1 yr (cotesting preferred, but cytology acceptable) | |
| Normal cytology and HPV positive | OPTION 1: repeat cotesting in 1 yr
OPTION 2: HPV DNA typing
|
|
| ASC-US cytology and HPV positive | Refer to ASCCP algorithms | |
| LSIL cytology | Refer to ASCCP algorithms | |
| History of ≥CIN2+ | Use screening based on schedule for women 30-65 yrs of age and screen for at least 20 yrs after CIN2-positive test | |
| Cytology (with or without reflex) | Normal cytology | Screen as per women 30-65 yrs until adequate screening definition fulfilled |
| ASC-US cytology | Refer to ASCCP algorithms | |
| LSIL cytology | Refer to ASCCP algorithms | |
| aIf prior screening was adequate and negative, no further screening is needed. If prior screening was inadequate, proceed with cotesting or cytology. Adequate screening is considered 3 consecutive negative cytology results or 2 consecutive negative cotesting results within the last 10 years; the most recent of either test must be within the past 5 years. | ||
Women Posthysterectomy
Screening for vaginal cancer should not be performed at any age in women who have undergone hysterectomy with removal of the cervix and have no history of CIN2+.
Women Post-HPV Vaccination
Screening practices should not change after HPV vaccination; age-based screening recommendations should be followed.
HPV Testing in Men
High-risk HPVs are known to cause cancers of the penis or anus. These cancers are uncommon, and only a subset are related to HPV. Currently, there is no HPV test recommended for men, and screening for anal cancer is not routinely recommended for men. However, some experts recommend yearly anal cancer screening by cytology ("anal Pap") for men who have sex with men (MSM) and HIV-positive men (anal cancer is more common in these populations).
Screening tests are not available for penile cancer.
HPV Testing in Head and Neck Cancer
Within the head and neck squamous cell cancers (HNSCCs), the overall incidence of HPV-positive cancers is increasing in the U.S., while the incidence of HPV-negative cancers (primarily tobacco and alcohol related) is decreasing. Those malignancies that are HPV positive are recognized as a distinct subset based on etiology, molecular-genetic aberrations, and favorable clinical outcomes. HPV-positive tumors are more common in the tongue and tonsils (lingual and palatine malignancies) and tend to occur in younger individuals who do not have typical risk factors for head and neck cancer (tobacco smoking and alcohol consumption).
National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) recommends that oropharyngeal SCCs (OSCCs) be tested for high-risk oncogenic HPV. Oral HPV type 16 infection increases the risk of oropharyngeal cancer (OC), and a strong causal relationship has been established. HPV types 18, 31, and 33 are responsible for the vast majority of the remaining cases. Tumors should be assessed for HPV status using a p16 immunohistochemistry (IHC) test.
ARUP Lab Tests
FDA-approved test and platform for primary HPV screening in women ≥25 yrs
FDA-approved test for routine cervical cancer screening in combination with cervical cytology (Pap smear) in women ≥30 yrs
Follow-up test for abnormal cytology results in women ≥21 yrs
Qualitative Polymerase Chain Reaction
FDA-approved test for routine cervical cancer screening in combination with cervical cytology (Pap smear) in women ≥30 yrs
Follow-up test for abnormal cytology results in women ≥21 yrs
Qualitative Transcription-Mediated Amplification
Qualitative Polymerase Chain Reaction
Qualitative Polymerase Chain Reaction
Qualitative Polymerase Chain Reaction
FDA-approved test for routine cervical cancer screening in combination with cervical cytology (Pap smear) in women ≥30 yrs; genotyping performed for triaging women to colposcopy who are cytology negative (NILM) and HPV positive
Qualitative Transcription-Mediated Amplification
FDA-approved test for triaging women ≥30 yrs to colposcopy who are cytology negative (NILM) and HPV positive
Qualitative Transcription-Mediated Amplification
FDA-approved test for 5-yr interval testing (cotesting) in women 30-65 yrs
Microscopy/Qualitative Transcription-mediated Amplification
Microscopy/Qualitative Polymerase Chain Reaction
FDA-approved test for routine cervical cancer screening in all women ≥21 yrs
Optional to use for cervical cancer screening at 3-yr intervals in women 25-65 yrs
Microscopy/Qualitative Transcription-mediated Amplification
FDA-approved test for routine cervical cancer screening at 3-yr intervals in all women ≥21 yrs
Optional to use for cervical cancer screening at 3-yr intervals in women 25-65 yrs
Microscopy/ Qualitative Polymerase Chain Reaction
FDA-approved test for routine cervical cancer screening at 3-yr intervals in all women ≥21 yrs
For 5-yr interval testing (cotesting) in women 30-65 yrs, order with HPV testing
ThinPrep 2000 System/Routine Cytopathologic Evaluation/Microscopy
Recommended testing modality for assessing HPV status in oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinomas
Usually overexpressed in HPV-associated oropharyngeal squamous cell cancer (HPV-OPSCC)
Does not confirm presence of HPV genome
Immunohistochemistry
In situ hybridization test to detect high-risk HPV subtypes (16, 18) to determine potential cancer risk
In situ Hybridization
Test for HPV genotype 16 and 18 in patients previously diagnosed with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma
Qualitative Polymerase Chain Reaction
Qualitative Polymerase Chain Reaction
Qualitative Polymerase Chain Reaction
Medical Experts
Deftereos
References
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